Science & Technology

DEVELOPMENT HISTORY

In 1947, with the emergence of a new

politically independent nation, India continued

to march ahead pursuing a programme of using

modern science and technology for national

development. Today India spends about 1.5 per

cent of its GNP on science and technology. In

this effort not only has India established

capabilities of its own but has also cooperated

with developed as well as developing countries

in its progress towards the use of science and

technology for national development.

Soon after Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became

the Prime Minister of India, he created a Ministry

of Scientific Research and Natural Resources,

and actively supported the atomic energy

programme for peaceful purposes. In 1948, the

Atomic Energy Act was passed and the

Department of Atomic Energy was directly

under his charge. Till his death in 1964, he was

the Chairman of the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research. His long association with

the India Science Congress Association is well

known. Under the farsighted leadership of

Nehru, the nation, the government and the

public leaders became committed to the

promotion of science and technology for

national development in a phased manner.

The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup

Bhatnagar led to the expansion of the Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research into a chain

of national laboratories spanning a wide

spectrum of science, technology, engineering

and biomedical sciences. The vision of Homi J.

Bhabha led to advanced research in nuclear

energy and other fundamental areas through the

creation of the Tata Institute of Fundamental

Research (TIFR) and what has now come to be

known as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center

(BARC), and the entire gamut of activities today

coming under the Atomic Energy Commission.

Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed

a Scientific Man-power Committee and had the

satisfaction of seeing five Institutes of

Technology come up at Kharagpur, Bombay,

Madras, Kanpur and Delhi, besides a number

of regional engineering colleges. A number of

institutions for specialized training such as the

National Institute of Foundry and Forge

Technology, School of Planning and

Architecture, the Institutes of Management and

the All India Institute of Medical Sciences were

set up. A similar expansion took place in science

education. The number of universities and

science graduates and post-graduates

multiplied. Nehru diversified the area of

operation in science and technology. India was

the first country, originally on the foot-pound

system, to change over the metric system during

the present century. In 1948, Nehru directed the

SCIR to prepare a National Register of Scientific

and Technical Personnel. The Defence Science

Organisation was set up in 1948, on the advice

of Professor P.M.S. Blackett, for the scientific

evaluation of weapons and equipment,

operational research and special studies using

scientific technique.

Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi gave the

highest priority to self- reliance in science and

technology and the achievement of self-

sufficiency in food. In 1971, recognizing the

importance of developing integrated and self-

reliant electronic capabilities in the country, she

set up the Electronics Commission. There have

been many accomplishments in the field. To

ensure that developmental activities took place

in harmony with the environment, Mrs. Gandhi

created a new Department of Environment at

the Centre in 1980. It was at her initiative that

the first Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica

took place in December 1981. She was deeply

aware of the great importance of energy for

development and, in particular, the pressing

needs in rural areas. Accordingly, she set up a

Commission on Additional Sources of Energy in

March 1981, and thereafter a Department of

Non-Conventional Energy Source.

India’s development plans have consistently

emphasised the need for sustained investment

in research and related activities leading to

creation of substantial capacity and capabilities

in science and technology (S&T). The fruits of

this effort are evident in India’s nuclear and

space programmes, information and

communication technology services, automotive

and pharmaceuticals industries and other areas.

 As the Indian economy continues on the

path of rapid, more inclusive and sustainable

growth, it will be necessary to ensure that India’s

capabilities in S&T grow in strength. This is

especially important if India is to become one of

the major economies of the world over the next

20 years.

The country needs to move up from investing

1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in

the R&D sector to 2 per cent of GDP and more,

as has been the case with several developed and

emerging economies for quite some time now.

This must be achieved not only through an

additional government effort, but also a much

increased private sector effort.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND

INNOVATION POLICY 2013

New Science, Technology and Innovation

(STI) policy has been formulated and enunciated

in 2013 and was formally released at the 100th

Session of Indian Science Congress at Kolkata

on 3rd January, 2013 by the Prime Minister Dr.

Manmohan Singh. The policy seeks to focus on

both STI for people and people for STI. It aims

to bring all the benefits of Science, Technology

& Innovation to the national development and

sustainable and more inclusive growth. It seeks

the right sizing of the gross expenditure on

research and development by encouraging and

incentivizing private sector participation in R &

D, technology and innovation activities. Main

features of the STI policy 2013 include:

Promoting the spread of scientific temper

amongst all sections of society.

Enhancing skills for applications of science

among the young from all social sectors.

Making careers in science, research and

innovation attractive enough for talented

and bright minds.

Establishing world class infrastructure for

R&D for gaining global leadership in some

select frontier areas of science.

Positioning India among the top five

global scientific powers by 2020 (by

increasing the share of global scientific

publications from 3.5 per cent to over 7

per cent and quadrupling the number of

papers in top 1 per cent journals from the

current levels).

Linking contributions of Science Research

and innovation system with the inclusive

economic growth agenda and combining

priorities of excellence and relevance.

Creating an environment for enhanced

private sector participation in R &D.

Enabling conversion of R & D output with

societal and commercial applications by

replicating hitherto successful models, as

well as establishing of new PPP structures.

Seeking S&T based high risk innovation

through new mechanisms.

Fostering resource optimized cost-effective

innovation across size and technology

domains.

Triggering in the mindset and value

systems to recognize respect and reward

performances which create wealth from

S&T derived knowledge.

Creating a robust national innovation

system.

Establishing linkages between discovery

processes of science and developmental

priorities of the country in agriculture,

manufacturing, services and infrastructure

sector.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

POLICY-2003

The “Science and Technology Policy-2003”

envisages an implementation strategy for

revitalization of the Science & Technology

institutions in the country. The key elements of

the strategy include:

(i) S&T governance and investment;

(ii) Strengthening of infrastructure for

Science and Technology in academic

institutions;

(iii) New funding mechanisms for basic

research;

(iv) Human resource development;

(v) Optimal Utilization of Existing

Infrastructure and Competence;

(vi) Technology Development, Transfer and

Diffusion;

(vii) Indigenous Resources and Traditional

Knowledge;

(viii) Technologies for Mitigation and

Management of Natural Hazards;

(ix) Promotion of Innovation;

(x) Generation and Management of

Intellectual Property;

(xi) Industry and scientific R&D;

(xii) Public Awareness of Science and

Technology; and

(xii) International Science and Technology

cooperation.

TECHNOLOGY MISSIONS

The “Technology Missions” were the brain

child of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. The missions started

in 1985 and were an offshoot of the Seventh Plan.

Launched in the fields of literacy, immunization,

oilseeds, drinking water, dairy products and

telecommunication, it had the following aims:

1. Make a substantial improvement in the

literacy level of the population.

2. Immunize all infants against six diseases and

women against tetanus.

3. Cut down imports of edible oils.

4. Improve the availability and quality of

drinking water in rural areas.

5. Improve milk production and rural

employment.

6. Extend and improve the telecommunication

network especially in the rural areas.

In the light of the new industrial and

economic policies adopted by the Government,

the approach to technology development has

had to be fine-tuned. Besides enhancing the flow

of technology from abroad, the Department of

Electronics has decided to launch a series of

Technology Missions, essentially to meet the

following three objectives:

(a) Strengthening the technology base

infrastructure.

(b) Commercializing indigenous technolog-

ies which improve the performance of

selected industries and their

competitiveness.

(c) Focus attention on certain emerging and

frontier technologies.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INFRASTRUCTURE

Besides having the third largest scientific

manpower, India also possess a large

infrastructural network. Scientific and

technological activities in India can be classified

into these sectors, viz., (i) Central government;

(ii) State government; (iii) higher education

sector; (iv) public sector industry and; (v) non-

profit institutions/associations. These

institutional structures comprise mainly of major

scientific departments of the Central

Government, with their research laboratories,

institutions, which are the main contributors to

the research activities being carried out in the

country. These are the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council

of Medical Research (ICMR), the Department of

Atomic Energy (DAE), Defence Research and

Development Organisation (DRDO),

Department of Ocean Development (DOD),

Department of Environment (DOE), and

Ministry of Science and Technology comprising

of three departments-Science and Technology,

Scientific and Industrial Research and

Biotechnology. Besides, there are other Central

Government ministries/departments and

number of research institutions under their

administrative and financial control. In addition,

there are in-house R & D units of public-sector

undertakings. The private sector industries have

established their own in-house R & D units,

which are responsible for undertaking R & D

activities for their respective industries. The state

governments have their own research institution,

which mainly comprise agriculture universities

and their research stations besides having other

research institutions directly under different

departments of the state governments.

Infrastructure for education, research and

development has expanded enormously over the

years.

ORGANISATIONS UNDER CSIR

CBRI Central Building Research Institute Roorkee (Uttarakhand)

CCMB Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology Hyderabad

CDRI Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow

CECRI Central Electro Chemical Research Institute Karaikudi (T.N.)

CEERI Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute Pilani (Raj)

CFRI Central Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad

CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute Mysore

CGCRI Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute Kolkata

CIMAP Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Lucknow

CLRI Central Leather Research Institute Chennai

CMERI Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Durgapur (W.B.)

CMRI Central Mining Research Institute Dhanbad

CRRI Central Road Research Institute New Delhi

CSIO Central Scientific Instruments Organization Chandigarh

CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi

IHBT Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology Palampur (H.P.)

CSMCI Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute Bhavnagar (Guj.)

ERDA Electronics Research and Development Association Vadodara

IICB Indian Institute of Chemical Biology Kolkata

IICT Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad

IIP Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun

IMT Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh

INSDOC Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre New Delhi

ITRC Industrial Toxicology Research Centre Lucknow

NAL National Aerospace Laboratory Bangalore

NBRI National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow

NCL National Chemical Laboratory Pune

NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur

NGRI National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad

NIO National Institute of Oceanography and Development Studies Panaji, Goa

NISTADS National Institute of Science, Technology and New Delhi

Development Studies

NML National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur

NPL National Physical Laboratory New Delhi

PID Publication and Information Directorate Delhi

RRL Regional Research Laboratory Bhopal, Jorhat,

Thiruvananthapuram,

Jammu, Bhubaneswar

TES Tocklai Experimental Station

SERC Structural Engineering Research Centre Chennai

Units and Measurements

All the quantities in terms of which

laws of physics are described and whose

measurement is essential are called physical

quantities like mass, length, time, light,

current electricity, temperature, etc.

UNIT

The fixed part of a Physical quantity by

dint of which comparision could be made

of the magnitudes of the same quantity

contained in different substances is termed

as a unit.

Systems of units Length Mass Time

1. C.G.S. System Centimetre Gram Second

2. F.P.S. System Foot Pound Second

3. M.K.S. System Metre Kilogram Second

The measurement of a physical quantity

requires a unit and the comparision of unit

to the quantity & the number of the units

obtained gives the measured value of the

quantity e.g. when we say that the length of

a rod is 5 metres it means that the length of

the rod is 5 times the unit of length, metre.

 FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

(i) Metre (m) : 1 metre is equal to the

length of the path travelled by light in

vacuum in 1/2 99792458 of a second where

speed of light is 299792458 m/s. Recently,

the definition of 1 metre of length is realized

by using the iodine stabilized helium neon

lasers.

(ii) Kilogram (kg) : A standard block of

Platinum Iridium alloy preserved in the

International Bureau of Weights & Measures

at Sevres, near Paris, France is used as a

prototype of unit of mass and one kilogram

is equal to the mass of this alloy.

(iii) Second (s) : The definition of second

is based on an atomic clock which works

on energy radiation from an isotope of

caesium (Cs-133). One second is equal to

the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 periods of

International System of Units (S.I.)

The system is a modification over the MKS system

and hence, is known as rationalised MKS System.

There are seven fundamental and two supplemen-

tary units in S. I. System :

Physical Fundamental Symbol

1. Mass Kilogram kg

2. Length Metre m

3. Time Second s

4. Tempertature Kelvin K

5. Electric-current Ampere A

6. Luminous intensity Candela Cd

7. Quantity of matter Mole mol

Supplementary Supplementary Symbol

Physical quantity Unit

1. Plane angle Radian rad.

2. Solid angle Steradian sr

The units of three quantities viz mass,

length and time are called fundamental

units because all physical quatities can be

expressed in terms of mass, length and

time and remaining all units are called

derived units.

radiation corresponding to unperturbed

transition between the two specific energy

levels of the ground gaseous state of Cs-

133 isotope. The caesium atoms in the

atomic clock act like a pendulum in a

pendulum clock. The atomic clock gives

the most accurate time with an error of 1

second only in 5000 years.

IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS

For Lengths : (i) Astronomical Unit

(A.U) : It is equal to the distance between

the centre of the earth and the centre of the

sun. One A.U. = 1.5 × 1011m.

(ii) Light Year (ly) : It is equal to the

distance travelled by light in vacuum in

one year. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015m.

 ■ ■ ■

(iii) Par sec. (Parallactic second) : 1

Par sec = 3.1 × 10¹⁶m = 3.26 ly

(iv) 1 micrometre or 1 micron = 10–6m

(v) 1 nanometre (1nm) = 10–9m

(vi) 1 Angstrom (1A°) = 10–10m

For Masses : (i) 1 tonne or 1 metric ton

= 1000 kg

(ii) 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg.

(iii) The largest unit of mass is Chandra

Shekher Limit (C.S.L) 1 C.S.L. = 1.4 times

the mass of the Sun.

(iv) For small masses atomic mass unit

(a.m.u.) is used. 1 a.m.u = 1.6 × 10–27kg.

For Area : (i) 1 acre = 4047 m2

.

(ii) 1 hectare = 10⁴

m2

.