Indian Polity Article 1 to 11

Indian Polity - The Union And Its Territory: Part I (Articles 1- 4)

The Union and its Territory

(Articles 1 to 4) under (Part I) of the Constitution deal with the Union and its territory.

Article 1 deal with the Name and territory of the Union —

(1) India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.

(2) The States and the territories thereof shall be as specified in the First Schedule.

(3) The territory of India shall comprise—

the territories of the States;

the Union territories specified in the First Schedule; and

such other territories as may be acquired

Article 1 stipulates that “India, i.e., Bharat, shall be a Union of States“.

Very important – Please note: the country is described as ‘Union’ although its Constitution

is federal in structure.

When asked why the country is described as ‘Union’, not federation?

Dr. B R Ambedkar replied – “the phrase ‘Union of States’ has been preferred to ‘Federation of States’ for two reasons:

one, the Indian Federation is not the result of an agreement among the states like the American Federation; and

two, the states have no right to secede from the federation. The federation is a union because it is indestructible.

The country is an integral whole and divided into different states only for the convenience of administration.

Please Note:

As of today there are 28 states and 8 Union territories in the country. (J&K and Ladakh – new UTs)

The provisions of the Constitution pertaining to the states are applicable to all the states in the same manner.

1st Schedule contains the names of the States and UTs.

5th and 6th Schedule of the Constitution contains separate provisions with respect to the administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas within the states.

States share distribution of powers with the Centre.

The union territories and the acquired territories are directly administered by the Central government. (except Delhi and Puducherry)

Do you know? ‘Territory of India’ is a wider expression than the ‘Union of India’

Because the latter includes only states while the former includes not only the states but also union territories and territories that may be acquired by the Government of India at any future time.

Article 2: Admission or establishment of new States.

Parliament may by law admit into the Union, or establish, new States on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit.

Article 2 grants two powers to the Parliament:

the power to admit into the Union of India new states; and

the power to establish new states.

Please note:

The first refers to the admission of states which are already in existence while the second refers to the establishment of states which were not in existence before.

Notably, Article 2 relates to the admission or establishment of new states that are not part of the Union of India.

Article 3: Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries, or names of existing States.

Parliament may by law—

(a) form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more States or parts of States or by uniting any territory to a part of any State;

(b) increase the area of any State;

(c) diminish the area of any State;

(d) alter the boundaries of any State;

(e) alter the name of any State.

Article 3 notably relates to the formation of or changes in the existing states of the Union of India.

However, Article 3 lays down two conditions in this regard:

One, a bill contemplating the above changes can be introduced in the Parliament only with the prior recommendation of the President; and

Two, before recommending the bill, the President has to refer the same to the state legislature concerned for expressing its views within a specified period.

The President (or Parliament) is not bound by the views of the state legislature and may either accept or reject them, even if the views are received in time.

Further, it is not necessary to make a fresh reference to the state legislature every time an amendment to the bill is moved and accepted in Parliament.

In the case of a union territory, no reference need be made to the concerned legislature to ascertain its views and the Parliament can itself take any action as it deems fit.

Crux: Constitution authorizes the Parliament to form new states or alter the areas, boundaries, or names of the existing states ‘without their consent’. Hence, the territorial integrity or continued existence of any state is not guaranteed by the Constitution. Therefore, India is rightly described as ‘an indestructible union of destructible states’.

Article 4: declares that laws made under Article 2 and 3 are not to be considered as amendments of the Constitution under Article 368.

Article 4 declares that laws made for admission or establishment of new states (under Article 2) and formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries, or names of existing states (under Articles 3) are not to be considered as amendments of the Constitution under Article 368.

This means that such laws can be passed by a simple majority and by the ordinary legislative process.

Please Note:

Indian Territory can be ceded to a foreign state only by amending the Constitution under Article 368.

However, the Supreme Court in 1969 ruled that settlement of a boundary dispute between India and another country does not require a constitutional amendment. It can be done by executive action as it does not involve cession of Indian Territory to a foreign country.

So only when there is the involvement of cession of Indian Territory to a foreign country, the amendment is needed.

EVOLUTION OF STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES

Integration of Princely States

We have read earlier that the Indian Independence Act (1947) gave three options to the princely states –

joining India,

joining Pakistan or

remaining independent

Of the 552 princely states situated within the geographical boundaries of India, 549 joined India and the remaining 3 (Hyderabad, Junagarh, and Kashmir) refused to join India.

However, in course of time –

Hyderabad state was integrated through Police action.

Junagarh was integrated through the referendum.

Kashmir was integrated through an Instrument of Accession.

Some important points:

After independence, there were demands from different regions, particularly South India, for the reorganization of states on a linguistic basis.

The government of India appointed S K Dhar Committee to examine the feasibility of the reorganization of states on a linguistic basis.

Dhar Committee recommended the reorganization of states on the basis of administrative convenience rather than linguistic factors.

This created much resentment and led to the appointment of another committee – JVP Committee – consisted of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallahbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya

JVP committee’s report formally rejected language as the basis for the reorganization of states.

However, the death of Potti Sriramulu, a Congressperson of standing, after a 56-day hunger strike for the cause of the creation of separate Andhra state on a linguistic basis — forced the Government of India to create the first linguistic state, known as Andhra state

The creation of Andhra state intensified the demand from other regions for the creation of states on a linguistic basis. This forced the Government of India to appoint Fazl Ali Commission to re-examine the whole question.

Faiz Ali’s report broadly accepted language as the basis of the reorganization of states. But, it rejected the theory of ‘one language–one state’. Its view was that the unity of India should be regarded as the primary consideration in any redrawing of the country’s political units.

Four major factors should be taken into account in any scheme of reorganization of states:

Preservation and strengthening of the unity and security of the country.

Linguistic and cultural homogeneity.

Financial, economic, and administrative considerations.

Planning and promotion of the welfare of the people in each state as well as of the nation as a whole.

Indian Polity - Citizenship Of India – Part II : (Articles 5-11)

Citizenship Of India

(Articles 5 to 11) – (Part II) of the Constitution – deals with the provisions of Citizenship. The term citizenship entails the enjoyment of full membership of any State in which a citizen has civil and political rights.

The Constitution confers the following rights and privileges on the citizens of India (and denies the same to aliens):

Right against discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth (Article 15).

Right to equality of opportunity in the matter of public employment (Article 16).

Right to freedom of speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and profession (Article 19).

Cultural and educational rights (Articles 29 and 30).

Right to vote in elections to the Lok Sabha and state legislative assembly.

The right to contest for the membership of the Parliament and the state legislature.

Eligibility to hold certain public offices, that is, President of India, Vice-President of India, judges of the Supreme Court and the high courts, governor of states, the attorney general of India and advocate general of states.

(In India both citizens by birth as well as a naturalized citizen are eligible for the office of President.)

Along with the above rights, the citizens also owe certain duties towards the Indian State, as for example, paying taxes, respecting the national flag and national anthem, defending the country, and so on.

Some important facts:

The Constitution deals with citizenship from Articles 5 to 11.

However, it only identifies the persons who became citizens of India at its commencement (i.e., on January 26, 1950).

It does not deal with the problem of acquisition or loss of citizenship subsequent to its commencement.

It empowers the Parliament to enact a law to provide for such matters and any other matter relating to citizenship. Accordingly, the Parliament has enacted the Citizenship Act.

Therefore we should know about (Articles 5 to 11) and (Citizenship Act)

According to the Constitution, the following four categories of persons became the citizens of India at its commencement i.e., on 26 January 1950:

ARTICLE 5 : CITIZENSHIP AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION

1. (Article 5): A person who had his domicile in India and also fulfilled any one of the three conditions, viz.,

if he was born in India; or

if either of his parents was born in India; or

if he has been ordinarily resident in India for five years immediately before the commencement of the Constitution became a citizen of India

Articles 6 and 7 deal with two categories of persons, namely, those who were residents in India but had migrated to Pakistan and those who were residents in Pakistan but had migrated to India. Those who migrated from Pakistan to India were divided into two categories:

those who came before July 19, 1948, and

those who came after that date.

ARTICLE 6: RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP OF CERTAIN PERSONS WHO HAVE MIGRATED TO INDIA FROM PAKISTAN

2. (Article 6): A person who migrated to India from Pakistan became an Indian citizen if he or either of his parents or any of his grandparents was born in undivided India and also fulfilled any one of the two conditions viz., in case he migrated to India before July 19, 1948, he had been ordinarily resident in India since the date of his migration; or in case he migrated to India on or after July 19, 1948, he had been registered as a citizen of India. But, a person could be so registered only if he had been resident in India for six months preceding the date of his application for registration.

ARTICLE 7: RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP OF CERTAIN MIGRANTS TO PAKISTAN

3. (Article 7): A person who migrated to Pakistan from India after March 1, 1947, but later returned to India for resettlement could become an Indian citizen. For this, he had to be resident in India for six months preceding the date of his application for registration.

ARTICLE 8: RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP OF CERTAIN PERSONS OF INDIAN ORIGIN RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

4. (Article 8): A person who, or any of whose parents or grandparents, was born in undivided India but who is ordinarily residing outside India shall become an Indian citizen if he has been registered as a citizen of India by the diplomatic or consular representative of India in the country of his residence, whether before or after the commencement of the Constitution. Thus, this provision covers the overseas Indians who may want to acquire Indian citizenship.

To sum up, these provisions deal with the citizenship of –

(a) Persons domiciled in India;

(b) Persons migrated from Pakistan;

(c) Persons migrated to Pakistan but later returned; and

(d) Persons of Indian origin residing outside India.

ARTICLE 9: PERSONS VOLUNTARILY ACQUIRING CITIZENSHIP OF A FOREIGN STATE NOT TO BE CITIZENS

No person shall be a citizen of India or be deemed to be a citizen of India if he has

voluntarily acquired the citizenship of any foreign state (Article 9).

ARTICLE 10: CONTINUANCE OF THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP

Every person who is or is deemed to be a citizen of India shall continue to be such

citizen, subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament (Article 10).

ARTICLE 11: PARLIAMENT TO REGULATE THE RIGHT OF CITIZENSHIP BY LAW

Parliament shall have the power to make any provision with respect to the acquisition

and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship (Article 11).

The Citizenship Act, 1955

A comprehensive law dealing with citizens was passed by Parliament in 1955 in accordance with the powers vested in it by Article 11 of the Constitution.

The provisions of the Act may be broadly divided into three parts, acquisition of citizenship, termination of citizenship, and supplemental provisions.

Acquisition of Citizenship

The Act provides five modes of acquiring the citizenship of India. These are:

Citizenship by birth

Citizenship by descent

Citizenship by registration

Citizenship by naturalization

By incorporation of territory (by the Government of India)

(1) By Birth:

Every person born in India on or after January 26, 1950, but before June 30, 1987, shall be a citizen of India by birth.

A person is a citizen of India by birth if he/she is born in India on or after July 1, 1987, but at the time of the birth, either of his parents was a citizen of India.

Note: The children of foreign diplomats posted in India and enemy aliens cannot acquire Indian citizenship by birth.

(2) By Descent:

A person born outside India on or after January 26, 1950, shall be a citizen of India by descent if his father or mother is a citizen of India at the time of his birth.

Children of those who are citizens of India by descent, as also children of noncitizens who are in service under a government in India, may also take advantage of this provision and become Indian citizens by descent, if they so desire, through registration.

(3) By Registration:

Any person who is not already an Indian citizen by virtue of the provisions of the Constitution or those of this Act can acquire citizenship by registration

if that person belongs to any one of the following five categories :

Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India and who have been so resident for at least six months immediately before making an application for registration.

Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in any country or place outside undivided India;

Women who are, or have been, married to citizens of India;

Minor children of persons who are citizens of India; and

Persons of full age and capacity who are citizens of the Commonwealth countries or the Republic of Ireland.

(4) By Naturalisation:

Any person who does not come under any of the categories mentioned above can acquire Indian citizenship by naturalisation if his application for the same has been accepted by the Government of India and certificate is granted to him to that effect.

An applicant for a naturalisation certificate has to satisfy the following conditions:

He is not a citizen of a country which prohibits Indians from becoming citizens of that country by naturalization;

He has renounced the citizenship of the country to which he belonged;

He has either resided in India or has been in the service of a government in India, normally, for one year immediately prior to the date of application;

During the seven years preceding the above mentioned one year, he has resided in India or been in the service of a government in India for a period amounting in the aggregate to not less than four years;

He is of good character;

He has adequate knowledge of a language specified in the Constitution;

If granted a certificate, he intends to reside in India or enter into, or continue in service under a government in India.

The Act provides, however, for a conspicuous exemption under which any or all of the above conditions may be waived in favor of a person who has rendered distinguished service to the cause of science, philosophy, art, literature, world peace or human progress generally.

Every person to whom a certificate of naturalization is granted has to take an oath of allegiance solemnly affirming that he will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established and that he will faithfully observe the laws of India and fulfill his duties as a citizen of India.

(5) By Incorporation of Territory:

If any territory becomes part of India, the Government of India, by order, may specify the persons who shall be citizens of India by reason of their connection with that territory.

Termination of Citizenship

The Act envisages three situations under which a citizen of India may lose his Indian nationality. These are:

(1) By Renunciation:

If any citizen of India who is also a national of another country renounces his Indian citizenship through a declaration in the prescribed manner, he ceases to be an Indian citizen of registration of such declaration.

When a male person ceases to be a citizen of India, every minor child of his also ceases to be a citizen of India. However, such a child may within one year after attaining full age, becomes an Indian citizen by making a declaration.

Science & Technology

DEVELOPMENT HISTORY

In 1947, with the emergence of a new

politically independent nation, India continued

to march ahead pursuing a programme of using

modern science and technology for national

development. Today India spends about 1.5 per

cent of its GNP on science and technology. In

this effort not only has India established

capabilities of its own but has also cooperated

with developed as well as developing countries

in its progress towards the use of science and

technology for national development.

Soon after Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became

the Prime Minister of India, he created a Ministry

of Scientific Research and Natural Resources,

and actively supported the atomic energy

programme for peaceful purposes. In 1948, the

Atomic Energy Act was passed and the

Department of Atomic Energy was directly

under his charge. Till his death in 1964, he was

the Chairman of the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research. His long association with

the India Science Congress Association is well

known. Under the farsighted leadership of

Nehru, the nation, the government and the

public leaders became committed to the

promotion of science and technology for

national development in a phased manner.

The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup

Bhatnagar led to the expansion of the Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research into a chain

of national laboratories spanning a wide

spectrum of science, technology, engineering

and biomedical sciences. The vision of Homi J.

Bhabha led to advanced research in nuclear

energy and other fundamental areas through the

creation of the Tata Institute of Fundamental

Research (TIFR) and what has now come to be

known as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center

(BARC), and the entire gamut of activities today

coming under the Atomic Energy Commission.

Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed

a Scientific Man-power Committee and had the

satisfaction of seeing five Institutes of

Technology come up at Kharagpur, Bombay,

Madras, Kanpur and Delhi, besides a number

of regional engineering colleges. A number of

institutions for specialized training such as the

National Institute of Foundry and Forge

Technology, School of Planning and

Architecture, the Institutes of Management and

the All India Institute of Medical Sciences were

set up. A similar expansion took place in science

education. The number of universities and

science graduates and post-graduates

multiplied. Nehru diversified the area of

operation in science and technology. India was

the first country, originally on the foot-pound

system, to change over the metric system during

the present century. In 1948, Nehru directed the

SCIR to prepare a National Register of Scientific

and Technical Personnel. The Defence Science

Organisation was set up in 1948, on the advice

of Professor P.M.S. Blackett, for the scientific

evaluation of weapons and equipment,

operational research and special studies using

scientific technique.

Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi gave the

highest priority to self- reliance in science and

technology and the achievement of self-

sufficiency in food. In 1971, recognizing the

importance of developing integrated and self-

reliant electronic capabilities in the country, she

set up the Electronics Commission. There have

been many accomplishments in the field. To

ensure that developmental activities took place

in harmony with the environment, Mrs. Gandhi

created a new Department of Environment at

the Centre in 1980. It was at her initiative that

the first Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica

took place in December 1981. She was deeply

aware of the great importance of energy for

development and, in particular, the pressing

needs in rural areas. Accordingly, she set up a

Commission on Additional Sources of Energy in

March 1981, and thereafter a Department of

Non-Conventional Energy Source.

India’s development plans have consistently

emphasised the need for sustained investment

in research and related activities leading to

creation of substantial capacity and capabilities

in science and technology (S&T). The fruits of

this effort are evident in India’s nuclear and

space programmes, information and

communication technology services, automotive

and pharmaceuticals industries and other areas.

 As the Indian economy continues on the

path of rapid, more inclusive and sustainable

growth, it will be necessary to ensure that India’s

capabilities in S&T grow in strength. This is

especially important if India is to become one of

the major economies of the world over the next

20 years.

The country needs to move up from investing

1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in

the R&D sector to 2 per cent of GDP and more,

as has been the case with several developed and

emerging economies for quite some time now.

This must be achieved not only through an

additional government effort, but also a much

increased private sector effort.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND

INNOVATION POLICY 2013

New Science, Technology and Innovation

(STI) policy has been formulated and enunciated

in 2013 and was formally released at the 100th

Session of Indian Science Congress at Kolkata

on 3rd January, 2013 by the Prime Minister Dr.

Manmohan Singh. The policy seeks to focus on

both STI for people and people for STI. It aims

to bring all the benefits of Science, Technology

& Innovation to the national development and

sustainable and more inclusive growth. It seeks

the right sizing of the gross expenditure on

research and development by encouraging and

incentivizing private sector participation in R &

D, technology and innovation activities. Main

features of the STI policy 2013 include:

Promoting the spread of scientific temper

amongst all sections of society.

Enhancing skills for applications of science

among the young from all social sectors.

Making careers in science, research and

innovation attractive enough for talented

and bright minds.

Establishing world class infrastructure for

R&D for gaining global leadership in some

select frontier areas of science.

Positioning India among the top five

global scientific powers by 2020 (by

increasing the share of global scientific

publications from 3.5 per cent to over 7

per cent and quadrupling the number of

papers in top 1 per cent journals from the

current levels).

Linking contributions of Science Research

and innovation system with the inclusive

economic growth agenda and combining

priorities of excellence and relevance.

Creating an environment for enhanced

private sector participation in R &D.

Enabling conversion of R & D output with

societal and commercial applications by

replicating hitherto successful models, as

well as establishing of new PPP structures.

Seeking S&T based high risk innovation

through new mechanisms.

Fostering resource optimized cost-effective

innovation across size and technology

domains.

Triggering in the mindset and value

systems to recognize respect and reward

performances which create wealth from

S&T derived knowledge.

Creating a robust national innovation

system.

Establishing linkages between discovery

processes of science and developmental

priorities of the country in agriculture,

manufacturing, services and infrastructure

sector.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

POLICY-2003

The “Science and Technology Policy-2003”

envisages an implementation strategy for

revitalization of the Science & Technology

institutions in the country. The key elements of

the strategy include:

(i) S&T governance and investment;

(ii) Strengthening of infrastructure for

Science and Technology in academic

institutions;

(iii) New funding mechanisms for basic

research;

(iv) Human resource development;

(v) Optimal Utilization of Existing

Infrastructure and Competence;

(vi) Technology Development, Transfer and

Diffusion;

(vii) Indigenous Resources and Traditional

Knowledge;

(viii) Technologies for Mitigation and

Management of Natural Hazards;

(ix) Promotion of Innovation;

(x) Generation and Management of

Intellectual Property;

(xi) Industry and scientific R&D;

(xii) Public Awareness of Science and

Technology; and

(xii) International Science and Technology

cooperation.

TECHNOLOGY MISSIONS

The “Technology Missions” were the brain

child of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. The missions started

in 1985 and were an offshoot of the Seventh Plan.

Launched in the fields of literacy, immunization,

oilseeds, drinking water, dairy products and

telecommunication, it had the following aims:

1. Make a substantial improvement in the

literacy level of the population.

2. Immunize all infants against six diseases and

women against tetanus.

3. Cut down imports of edible oils.

4. Improve the availability and quality of

drinking water in rural areas.

5. Improve milk production and rural

employment.

6. Extend and improve the telecommunication

network especially in the rural areas.

In the light of the new industrial and

economic policies adopted by the Government,

the approach to technology development has

had to be fine-tuned. Besides enhancing the flow

of technology from abroad, the Department of

Electronics has decided to launch a series of

Technology Missions, essentially to meet the

following three objectives:

(a) Strengthening the technology base

infrastructure.

(b) Commercializing indigenous technolog-

ies which improve the performance of

selected industries and their

competitiveness.

(c) Focus attention on certain emerging and

frontier technologies.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INFRASTRUCTURE

Besides having the third largest scientific

manpower, India also possess a large

infrastructural network. Scientific and

technological activities in India can be classified

into these sectors, viz., (i) Central government;

(ii) State government; (iii) higher education

sector; (iv) public sector industry and; (v) non-

profit institutions/associations. These

institutional structures comprise mainly of major

scientific departments of the Central

Government, with their research laboratories,

institutions, which are the main contributors to

the research activities being carried out in the

country. These are the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council

of Medical Research (ICMR), the Department of

Atomic Energy (DAE), Defence Research and

Development Organisation (DRDO),

Department of Ocean Development (DOD),

Department of Environment (DOE), and

Ministry of Science and Technology comprising

of three departments-Science and Technology,

Scientific and Industrial Research and

Biotechnology. Besides, there are other Central

Government ministries/departments and

number of research institutions under their

administrative and financial control. In addition,

there are in-house R & D units of public-sector

undertakings. The private sector industries have

established their own in-house R & D units,

which are responsible for undertaking R & D

activities for their respective industries. The state

governments have their own research institution,

which mainly comprise agriculture universities

and their research stations besides having other

research institutions directly under different

departments of the state governments.

Infrastructure for education, research and

development has expanded enormously over the

years.

ORGANISATIONS UNDER CSIR

CBRI Central Building Research Institute Roorkee (Uttarakhand)

CCMB Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology Hyderabad

CDRI Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow

CECRI Central Electro Chemical Research Institute Karaikudi (T.N.)

CEERI Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute Pilani (Raj)

CFRI Central Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad

CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute Mysore

CGCRI Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute Kolkata

CIMAP Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Lucknow

CLRI Central Leather Research Institute Chennai

CMERI Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Durgapur (W.B.)

CMRI Central Mining Research Institute Dhanbad

CRRI Central Road Research Institute New Delhi

CSIO Central Scientific Instruments Organization Chandigarh

CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi

IHBT Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology Palampur (H.P.)

CSMCI Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute Bhavnagar (Guj.)

ERDA Electronics Research and Development Association Vadodara

IICB Indian Institute of Chemical Biology Kolkata

IICT Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad

IIP Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun

IMT Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh

INSDOC Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre New Delhi

ITRC Industrial Toxicology Research Centre Lucknow

NAL National Aerospace Laboratory Bangalore

NBRI National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow

NCL National Chemical Laboratory Pune

NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur

NGRI National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad

NIO National Institute of Oceanography and Development Studies Panaji, Goa

NISTADS National Institute of Science, Technology and New Delhi

Development Studies

NML National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur

NPL National Physical Laboratory New Delhi

PID Publication and Information Directorate Delhi

RRL Regional Research Laboratory Bhopal, Jorhat,

Thiruvananthapuram,

Jammu, Bhubaneswar

TES Tocklai Experimental Station

SERC Structural Engineering Research Centre Chennai

Units and Measurements

All the quantities in terms of which

laws of physics are described and whose

measurement is essential are called physical

quantities like mass, length, time, light,

current electricity, temperature, etc.

UNIT

The fixed part of a Physical quantity by

dint of which comparision could be made

of the magnitudes of the same quantity

contained in different substances is termed

as a unit.

Systems of units Length Mass Time

1. C.G.S. System Centimetre Gram Second

2. F.P.S. System Foot Pound Second

3. M.K.S. System Metre Kilogram Second

The measurement of a physical quantity

requires a unit and the comparision of unit

to the quantity & the number of the units

obtained gives the measured value of the

quantity e.g. when we say that the length of

a rod is 5 metres it means that the length of

the rod is 5 times the unit of length, metre.

 FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

(i) Metre (m) : 1 metre is equal to the

length of the path travelled by light in

vacuum in 1/2 99792458 of a second where

speed of light is 299792458 m/s. Recently,

the definition of 1 metre of length is realized

by using the iodine stabilized helium neon

lasers.

(ii) Kilogram (kg) : A standard block of

Platinum Iridium alloy preserved in the

International Bureau of Weights & Measures

at Sevres, near Paris, France is used as a

prototype of unit of mass and one kilogram

is equal to the mass of this alloy.

(iii) Second (s) : The definition of second

is based on an atomic clock which works

on energy radiation from an isotope of

caesium (Cs-133). One second is equal to

the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 periods of

International System of Units (S.I.)

The system is a modification over the MKS system

and hence, is known as rationalised MKS System.

There are seven fundamental and two supplemen-

tary units in S. I. System :

Physical Fundamental Symbol

1. Mass Kilogram kg

2. Length Metre m

3. Time Second s

4. Tempertature Kelvin K

5. Electric-current Ampere A

6. Luminous intensity Candela Cd

7. Quantity of matter Mole mol

Supplementary Supplementary Symbol

Physical quantity Unit

1. Plane angle Radian rad.

2. Solid angle Steradian sr

The units of three quantities viz mass,

length and time are called fundamental

units because all physical quatities can be

expressed in terms of mass, length and

time and remaining all units are called

derived units.

radiation corresponding to unperturbed

transition between the two specific energy

levels of the ground gaseous state of Cs-

133 isotope. The caesium atoms in the

atomic clock act like a pendulum in a

pendulum clock. The atomic clock gives

the most accurate time with an error of 1

second only in 5000 years.

IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS

For Lengths : (i) Astronomical Unit

(A.U) : It is equal to the distance between

the centre of the earth and the centre of the

sun. One A.U. = 1.5 × 1011m.

(ii) Light Year (ly) : It is equal to the

distance travelled by light in vacuum in

one year. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015m.

 ■ ■ ■

(iii) Par sec. (Parallactic second) : 1

Par sec = 3.1 × 10¹⁶m = 3.26 ly

(iv) 1 micrometre or 1 micron = 10–6m

(v) 1 nanometre (1nm) = 10–9m

(vi) 1 Angstrom (1A°) = 10–10m

For Masses : (i) 1 tonne or 1 metric ton

= 1000 kg

(ii) 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg.

(iii) The largest unit of mass is Chandra

Shekher Limit (C.S.L) 1 C.S.L. = 1.4 times

the mass of the Sun.

(iv) For small masses atomic mass unit

(a.m.u.) is used. 1 a.m.u = 1.6 × 10–27kg.

For Area : (i) 1 acre = 4047 m2

.

(ii) 1 hectare = 10⁴

m2

.

Chalcolithic Period

Chalcolithic Period

• The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of 

metals of which copper was the fi rst. A culture 

based on the use of stone and copper arrived called 

the Chalcolithic phase meaning the stone-copper 

phase.

• The fi rst full-fl edged village communities evolved 

in the Chalcolithic phase which was chronologically 

antecedents to Harappan people. Rafi que Mughal 

of Pakistan named there settlements as Early 

Harappan culture.

• Though some Chalcolithic cultures are 

contemporary of Harappan and some of pre-

Harappan cultures but most Chalcolithic cultures 

are post-Harappan.

• Though Chalcolithic cultures mostly used stone and 

copper implements, the Harappans used bronze (an 

alloy of copper and tin) on such a scale that Harappan 

culture is known as a Bronze Age Culture.

• Apart from stone tools, hand axes and other objects 

made from copperware were also used.

• The evidences of relationship with Afghanistan, 

Iran and probably Central India and visible at 

Mehargarh.

• The Chalcolithic culture at many places continued 

till 700 B.C. nd sometime around 1200 B.C. the use 

of iron seems to have begun in the Chalcolithic level 

itself. The use of iron subsequently revolutionized 

the culture making progress and by 800 B.C. a 

distinct Iron Age came into existence

• The Chalcolithic people used different types of 

pottery of which black and red pottery was most 

popular. It was wheel made and painted with 

white line design.

• The Chalcolithic people were not acquainted with 

burnt bricks and generally lived in thatched houses. 

It was a village economy.

• They venerated the mother goddess and 

worshipped the bull.

Sites

• Important sites of this stage are spread in 

Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, 

Madhya Pradesh, etc.

• The Chalcolithic culture in Rajasthan is known as 

Banas culture after the river of the same name and 

is also known as Ahar culture after the typesite.

• In the Malwa region the important Chalcolithic 

sites are Nagda, Kayatha, Navdatoli, and Eran. 

Mud-plastered fl oors are a prominent feature of 

Kayatha.

• The Kayatha culture is characterized by a sturdy 

red-slipped ware painted with designs in chocolate 

colour, a red painted buff ware and a combed ware 

bearing incised patterns.

• The Ahar people made a distinctive black-and-red 

ware decorated with white designs.

• The Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric, but has 

a thick buff surface over which designs are made 

either in red or black.

• The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are both derived 

from the Harappan, but have a glossy surface due 

to which they are also called Lustrous Red Ware.

• Jorwe ware too is painted black-on-red but has a 

matt surface treated with a wash.

• The settlements of Kayatha cutlure are only a few 

in number, mostly located on the Chambal and its 

tributaries. They are relatively small in size and the 

biggest may be not over two hectares.

• In contrast to small Kayatha culture settlements 

those of Ahar cultures are big. At least three of 

them namely Ahar, Balathal and Gilund are of 

several hectares.

• Stone, mud bricks and mud were used for the 

construction of houses and other structures.

• Excavations reveal that Balathal was a well-

fortifi ed settlement.

• The people of Malwa culture settled mostly on 

the Narmada and its tributaries. Navdatoli, Eran 

and Nagada are the three best known settlements 

of Malwa culture. Navadatoli measures almost 

10 hectares and is one of the largest Chalcolithic 

settlements.

• It has been seen that some of these sites were 

fortifi ed and Nagada had even a bastion of mud-

bricks. Eran similarly had a fortifi cation wall with 

a moat.

• The Rangpur culture sites are located mostly on 

Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat.

• The Jorwe settlement is comparatively larger in 

number.

• Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon are some of 

the best known settlements of this culture. The 

largest of these is Daimabad which measured 20 

hectares.

• From Mesolithic culture onwards, all the culture 

types coexisted and interacted with each other.

Lifestyle

• The Chalcolithic people built rectangular and 

circular houses of mud wattled-and-daub. The 

circular houses were mostly in clusters. These 

houses and huts had roots of straw supported on 

bamboo and wooden rafters. Floors were made 

of rammed clay and huts were used for storage 

also.

• People raised cattle as well as cultivated both Kharif 

and Rabi crops in rotation. Wheat and barley were 

grown in the area of Malwa. Rice is reported to have 

been found from Inamgaon and Ahar. These people 

also cultivated jowar and bajra and so also kulthi 

ragi, green peas, lentil and green and black grams.

• Religion was an important aspect which interlinked 

all Chalcolithic cultures. The worship of mother 

goddess and the bull was in vogue. The bull cult 

seems to have been predominant in Malwa during 

the Ahar period.

• A large number of these both naturalistic as well as 

stylised lingas have been found from most of the 

sites of Chalcolithic settlements. The naturalistic 

ones may have served as votive offerings, but the 

small stylised ones may have been hung around 

the neck as the Lingayats do today.

• The Mother Goddess is depicted on a huge storage 

jar of Malwa culture in an applique design. She is 

fl anked by a woman on the right and a crocodile 

on the left, by the side of which is represented the 

shrine.

• Likewise the fiddle-shaped figurines probably 

resembling Srivatsa, the symbol of Lakshmi, the 

Goddess of wealth in historical period represent a 

mother Goddess.

• In a painted design on a pot, a deity is shown with 

dishevelled hair, recalling Rudra.

• A painting on a jar found from Daimabad shows 

a deity surrounded by animals and birds such as 

tigers and peacocks. Some scholars compare it 

with the ‘Shiva Pashupati’ depicted on a seal from 

Mohenjodaro.

Two fi gurines from Inamgaon, belonging to late 

Jorwe culture, are identifi ed as proto-Ganesh, who 

is worshipped for success. 

• Several headless figurines found at Inamgaon 

have been compared with Goddess Visira of the 

Mahabharata.

• Fire-worship seems to have been a very widespread 

phenomenon among the Chalcolithic people of 

Pre-historic India as fi re-altars have been found 

from a large number of Chalcolithic sites during 

the course of excavations.

• The occurence of pots and other funerary objects 

found along with burials of the Malwa and Jorwe 

people indicate that people had a belief in life after 

death.

• The Chalcolithic farmers had made considerable 

progress in ceramic as well as metal technology. 

The painted pottery was well made and well fi red 

in kiln, it was fi red at a temperature between 500-

700°C.

• In metal tools we fi nd axes, chisels, bangles, beads, 

etc. mostly made of copper. The copper was obtained, 

perhaps, from the Khetri mines of Rajasthan.

• Gold ornaments were extremely rare and have been 

found only in the Jorwe culture.

• An ear ornament has been found from Prabhas in 

the Godavari valley also.

• The fi nd of crucibles and pairs of tongs of copper 

at Inamgaon in Maharashtra shows the working of 

goldsmiths.

• Chalcedony drills were used for perforating beads 

of semi-precious stones.

• Lime was prepared out of Kankar and used for 

various purposes like painting houses and lining 

the storage bins, etc.